German Aircraft in Service 1933-1945

German aircraft designs were consistently among the most advanced and successful of the war. Of all the nations, Germany was the first to begin to make significant use of jet aircraft, although these nevertheless came too late in the war and in insufficient quantity to have a decisive effect on the course of the air war. The Luftwaffe (German air force) had a few advocates for the production of large four-engine bombers, most notably the prewar chief of staff general Walther Wever. However, with his death in April 1936, the idea of a strategic role for the Luftwaffe also died, and the German air force instead adopted the basic doctrine that bombers should be used tactically to support the ground troops directly by striking targets on or near the battlefield. By the time the war began, German bombers were used strategically to bomb civilian targets, especially London and other English cities during the Battle of Britain. However, because of prevailing Luftwaffe doctrine, Germany, unlike the United States and Great Britain, produced no significant four-engine bombers. Abortive plans were made for the “Amerika” bomber, a spectacular aircraft of intercontinental range, but nothing came of the project.

The Stuka. Perhaps the most infamous of Germany’s bombers was the single-engine Junkers Ju87, better known as the Stuka. Designed in the mid-1930s, the Stuka was a dive bomber, which deployed its 1,100-pound bomb load not from level flight but from low altitude, near the end of a sharp 80-degree dive. This ensured surgical accuracy of the strike. By 1942, it was even fitted with a single 4000-pound bomb, which was used against heavy tanks. After striking its target with bombs, the Stuka often circled around to strafe survivors with its three 7.9-mm machine guns. The aircraft was also fitted with sirens, so-called Jericho trumpets, which produced a truly terrifying scream during the high-speed dive. Thus, the weapon produced as much panic and terror as physical destruction.

Stukas were deployed with great effect in the invasion of Poland, the Battle of France, and the invasion of the Soviet Union. However, after these early operations, the 238-mile-per-hour, poorly maneuverable Stuka proved increasingly vulnerable to fighter attack and was reconfigured in 1942 as the Ju87G-1, a dedicated antitank aircraft.

The Ju87B-2, best known of the Stuka iterations, was powered by a single 1,200-horsepower Jumo 211 Da engine and had a wingspan of 45 feet 3 1/3 inches, a service ceiling of 26,250 feet, and a range of 490 miles. It could be configured to carry a maximum of four individual bombs. About 5,700 Stukas were completed before production ended in 1944.

Germany’s other significant bombers were twin-engine medium bombers and included the following.

Heinkel He111H-3. Crewed by four or five, the Heinkel first flew in early 1939. It was powered by two Junkers Jumo 211D-2 V-12 engines, each making 1,200 horsepower for a top speed, empty, of 258 miles per hour. Range was 745 miles and service ceiling 25,590 feet. The plane’s wingspan was 74 feet 1 3/4 inches. It was heavily armed with 7.92-mm machine guns in the nose cap, in the dorsal position, in a ventral gondola, in waist windows, in a fixed forward-firing position, in the side of the nose (could be operated by the copilot), and in the tail. The plane also had a 20-mm cannon on a fixed mount in the front part of the ventral gondola. Bomb load was up to 4,410 pounds.

Dornier Do 17Z-1. Crewed by four, the Do17Z- 1 was introduced in January 1939 and was driven by a pair of Bramo Fafnir 323P 9-cylinder radial engines making 1,000 horsepower each. Wingspan was 59 feet, top speed 263 miles per hour, and service ceiling 26,740 feet. Range was 721 miles. The aircraft was armed with three 7.92-mm machine guns, one manually aimed from a rear ventral hatch, one manually aimed to the rear from a dorsal position, and one fixed forward in the right windshield. The bomber could carry a 2,205- pound load internally. About 1,100 Dorniers (all versions) were produced before the type was phased out in 1942, having taken very heavy casualties in the Battle of Britain.

Junkers Ju88A-4. A very successful design, 14,676 were built in all versions. About 9,000 were configured as medium bombers. The rest were configured mostly as night fighters. The versatile aircraft was used throughout the war, beginning with operations in Poland in 1939 and against just about every enemy Germany fought. The Ju88A4 version was capable of operating as a level bomber, a dive bomber, and a torpedo bomber. Generally, the bomb load consisted of 10 50-pound bombs loaded internally with as many as four bombs of various types fixed to hard points under the wings. A pair of torpedoes could also be mounted under the wings. Wingspan was 65 feet 10 inches, and the plane was driven by a pair of 950-horsepower Junkers Jumo 211 F engines. Top speed was 292 miles per hour, ceiling 26,900 feet, and range 1,106 miles.

Dornier Do 217K/M. The Do 217 series of bombers became operational in March 1941 and represented a significant advance over the Do 17. In addition to serving as a level bomber, the Do 217 could be configured as a night fighter, a torpedo bomber, and a reconnaissance aircraft. By August 1943, the aircraft was also being used to carry anti-shipping missiles, and by September, it was delivering guided bombs against warships. Production reached 1,905 of all types, including some 1,366 level bombers. The Do 217K and M versions were crewed by four and powered by two 1,700-horsepower BMW 810D 14-cylinder radials (K) or two 1,750-horsepower Daimler-Benz DB603A inverted V12s (M). Top speed was 320 miles per hour, service ceiling 24,600 feet, and range 1,430 miles. Wingspan was 62 feet 4 inches, and, for the M version, armament consisted of four 7.92-mm and two 13-mm machine guns with a bomb load of 8,818 pounds; the K version added two underwing FX-1400 Fritz X radio-controlled bombs, two FX-1400 bombs, or two Hs 293 missiles.

Junkers Ju188E-1. Produced in reconnaissance (designated D) and bomber versions (designated E), the Ju188 series was crewed by five and first flew in 1940. About 1,100 were produced during the war. The Ju 188E was powered by two BMW 801G- 2 18-cylinder two-row radials, each producing 1,700 horsepower for a top speed of 310 miles per hour. Service ceiling was 31,510 feet, and range was 1,211 miles. Wingspan was 72 feet 2 inches. Typically, the aircraft was armed with a single 20-mm cannon in its nose and three 13-mm machine guns, one in a dorsal turret, one manually aimed from the rear dorsal position, and one manually aimed from the rear ventral position; in some configurations, twin 7.92-mm machine guns were substituted for the last position. Typical bomb load was 6,614 pounds loaded internally, or two 2,200- pound torpedoes under the wings.

Heinkel He177A-5. This was the largest bomber Germany actually deployed, with a wingspan of 103 feet 1 3/4 inches and a bomb load capacity of 13,228 pounds. It was powered by two massive 3,100-horsepower Daimler-Benz DB610 coupled engines. This design feature was an innovative attempt to reduce drag, but it created severe reliability problems that often resulted in engine fires. Fully three-quarters of the preproduction prototypes crashed; 1,146 were produced, and while the 3,100-mile range was badly needed by the Luftwaffe, the airplanes were not very effective as strategic bombers. They were used with moderate effectiveness in an antitank role. Top speed was 295 miles per hour and service ceiling 26,500 feet. Armament consisted of one 7.92-mm machine gun manually aimed in the nose, one 20-mm machine gun manually aimed in the forward ventral gondola, two 13-mm machine guns in a front dorsal turret, one in the aft dorsal turret, and one 20-mm cannon in the tail position.

Arado Ar234B-2. Of greater historical than practical significance was the Arado Ar234B-2, the world’s first jet bomber, which became operational at the end of November 1944, too late to have any impact on the course of the war. Powered by a pair of BMW 003A-1 jets, each developing 1,764 pounds of thrust, the Arado had a top speed of 461 miles per hour and could carry 4,409 pounds of bombs over a 1,000-mile range. Service ceiling was 32,810 feet. For defensive purposes, the Arado carried two 20-mm cannon. Only 210 were built.

German fighter designs were generally more successful and more innovative than its bomber designs. The two most important fighters were the Messerschmitt 109 series and the Focke-Wulf 190 series.

Messerschmitt 109. The Messerschmitt 109 first flew in October 1935, powered by British Rolls- Royce Kestrel engines. The aircraft entered Luftwaffe service in spring 1937 and received its baptism of fire in the Spanish civil war. By the beginning of World War II, the aircraft existed in a number of variants, and 1,000 were deployed against Poland in September 1939. The 109 was superior to most other fighters at the outbreak of the war but was fairly evenly matched with the British Spitfire and Hurricane in the Battle of Britain. It did have one very significant advantage over these rivals, however. Its fuel injection system allowed for a constant fuel flow even in negative-g conditions, which meant that a pilot could dive or shear away much more quickly than his opponents. This added significantly to the plane’s survivability. Counterbalancing this advantage, however, was the 109’s limited range—a 300-mile operating radius for the 109G. This gave the fighter precious little combat time over relatively remote targets such as those in England.

Some 109 variants had a cannon placed in the hollowed-out nose cap. In early models, this created an unacceptable level of vibration, which, however, was eliminated in later versions. Additionally, most of the fighters were fitted with two wing-mounted cannons and two machine guns mounted on the top of the nose cone that were synchronized to fire through the propeller arc. The 109G, introduced in 1942, was powered by a Daimler- Benz DB605 1,475-horsepower engine to a top speed of 387 miles per hour at 23,000 feet. Wingspan was 32 feet 6 1/2 inches. The backbone of the Luftwaffe, some 30,000 109s were built before the end of the war.

Focke-Wulf Fw 190. Superior even to the formidable Messerschmitt 109 was the Focke-Wulf Fw 190, which made its first flight on June 1, 1939. It first saw action in the Battle of France in September 1941 and was markedly superior to the British Spitfire. Most Fw 190s were the A series, powered by a single BMW 801 2,100-horsepower radial engine. However, late in 1943, the D was deployed against U.S. bombers, powered by the Jumo 213 inline, liquid-cooled engine, which developed only 1,770 horsepower but had improved performance, producing a top speed of 426 miles per hour, 18 miles per hour faster than the A version. In all, some 20,000 Fw 190s of all types were built before the end of the war. Wingspan of the D type was 34 feet 5 1/3 inches, and armament consisted of two 20-mm wing-mounted cannon and two 13-mm machine guns in the nose. Range was 520 miles and service ceiling 40,000 feet.

Messerschmitt Bf 110. The twin-engine Messerschmitt Bf 110 made its first flight in May 1936. With all-metal construction and a crew of three, the aircraft was powered by two Daimler Benz DB 601 engines, each making 1,100 horsepower and propelling the plane to a maximum speed of 336 miles per hour over a range of 680 miles. Wingspan was 53 feet 4 inches, and armament consisted of five machine guns and two 20-mm cannon. Formidable as all this seems, the aircraft performed poorly in the Battle of Britain. This prompted a redesign with the inclusion of radar, which transformed the Bf 110 into the Luftwaffe’s finest night fighter. In all, nearly 6,000 Bf 110s were produced before the end of the war.

Jet and rocket-propelled fighters. Late in the war, in 1944, Germany introduced both jet- and rocket-propelled fighters. The Messerschmitt 163B was powered by a single Walter rocket motor developing 3,700 pounds of thrust and capable of reaching 590 miles per hour at 20,000 feet. Range, however, was extremely limited. Armed with two 30-mm cannon and 24 R4M rockets, the 163B had a wingspan of 30 feet 7 inches. Very few were produced. More significant, however, was the jet-powered Messerschmitt 262A, with two Junkers 004 jets, each making 1,980 pounds of thrust, mounted under the wings. Top speed was 540 miles per hour over a range of 420 miles. Armament was limited to four 30-mm cannon. The aircraft was designed primarily to attack Allied bombers, which it did very effectively. Had the aircraft been introduced earlier and in much greater numbers, its impact on the air war over Europe would have been profound.

Further reading: Brown, Eric. Wings of the Luftwaffe: Flying German Aircraft of the Second World War. Shrewsbury, U.K.: Airlife, 2001; Donald, David, ed. German Aircraft of World War II. Minneapolis: Motorbooks International, 1996; Griehl, Manfred. German Jets of World War II. London: Arms & Armour, 1989; Gunston, Bill. An Illustrated Guide to German, Italian and Japanese Fighters of World War II: Major Fighters and Attack Aircraft of the Axis Powers. London: Salamander Books, 1980; Gunston, Bill. World War II German Aircraft. London: Book Sales, 1985; Kay, Antony L., and J. R. Smith. German Aircraft of the Second World War. Annapolis, Md.: United States Naval Institute, 2002; Shepherd, Christopher. German Aircraft of World War II. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1975.

The Ju 87D-3 had extra armour protection for the ground-attack role, and an odd experimental version of the Ju 87D-3 had a pod above each wing, both capable of carrying two persons and intended to be used to drop agents behind enemy lines. The pods were designed to be released in a shallow dive and to descend by parachute, but the point of this is obscure and it is not known if flight trials and release ever took place.

The R-variant was basically a Ju 87B version with facilities for fitting external wing-drop fuel tanks enabling a range of 1,000 km (620 miles). The improved D-version had a slightly more aerodynamic fuselage with a refined engine cowling, and redesigned cockpit line; it could carry an increased bomb load, had a greater range, and could mount various weapons, notably two underwing WB 81 containers each housing six MG 81 guns.

Although the Stukas had suffered mightily at the hands of the RAF, the Luftwaffe had no immediate replacement available and development continued, the next production model being the Ju 87D-1 with the new 1,410-hp (1051-kW) Jumo 211J-1 engine. Considerable changes were made in the aircraft's appearance and armour was increased, probably the most popular improvement! Production of this version began in 1941 and deliveries during that year totalled 476, with 917 in 1942. The type was deployed extensively in the Middle East and on the Eastern Front, and in the former area was even used as a glider tug under the designation Ju 87D-2. The Ju 87D-3 had extra armour protection for the ground-attack role, and an odd experimental version of the Ju 87D-3 had a pod above each wing, both capable of carrying two persons and intended to be used to drop agents behind enemy lines. The pods were designed to be released in a shallow dive and to descend by parachute, but the point of this is obscure and it is not known if flight trials and release ever took place. The designation Ju 87D-4 applied to a torpedo· bomber version. The Ju 87D-5 had the outer wing panels extended to give a span of 49 ft 2 1/2 in (15.00 m), the increase being necessary to cope with the heavier loads that were being carried. Dive brakes were omitted as the variant was intended only for ground attack.

The Ju 87s in use on the Eastern Front were, by 1943, being severely mauled by the Red Air Force during daytime operations. A night assault version. also without dive brakes, was developed as the Ju 87D-7 with flame-damped exhausts, two wing-mounted 20mm MG 151/20 cannon and night-flying equipment. The Ju 87D-8 final production version was a similar but simplified aircraft.

Fall Blau to Stalingrad; 1942

In early 1942, the Ju 87s were to give the Germany Army (Heer) yet more valuable support. On 29 December 1941, the Soviet 44th Army landed on the Kerch Peninsula. The Luftwaffe was only able to dispatch meager reinforcements of four Kampfgruppen (bomber group. Note: not Kampfgeschwader, meaning bomber wing) and two Sturzkampfgruppen, (dive bomber groups) belonging to StG 77. With air superiority, the Ju 87s operated with impunity. In the first 10 days of the Battle of the Kerch Peninsula, half the landing force was destroyed, while sea lanes were blocked by the Stukas inflicting heavy losses on Soviet shipping. The Ju 87's effectiveness against Soviet armour was not yet potent. Later versions of the T-34 tank could withstand Stuka attack in general, unless a direct hit was scored but the Soviet 44th Army had only obsolescent types with thin armour which were nearly all destroyed.

During the Battle of Sevastopol, the Stukas repeatedly bombed the trapped Soviet forces. Some Ju 87 pilots flew up to 300 sorties against the Soviet defenders. Luftflotte 4's StG 77 flew 7,708 combat sorties dropping 3,537 tonnes of bombs on the city. Their efforts help secure the capitulation of Soviet forces on 4 July.

For the German summer offensive, Fall Blau, the Luftwaffe had concentrated 1,800 aircraft into Luftflotte 4 making it the largest and most powerful air command in the world. The Stukawaffe strength stood at 151. During the Battle of Stalingrad, Stukas flew thousands of sorties against Soviet positions in the city. StG 1, 2 and 77 flew 320 sorties on 14 October 1942. As the German Sixth Army pushed the Soviets into a 1,000 metre enclave on the west bank of the Volga River, 1,208 Stuka sorties were flown against this small strip of land. The intense air attack, though causing horrific losses on Soviet units, failed to destroy them. The Luftwaffe's Sturzkampfgeschwader made a maximum effort during this phase of the war. They flew an average of 500 sorties per day and caused heavy losses among Soviet forces, losing an average of only one Stuka per day.[144]

The Battle of Stalingrad marked the high point in the fortunes of the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka. As the strength of the Soviet Air Forces grew, they gradually wrested control of the skies from the Luftwaffe. From this point onward, Stuka losses increased.

The T-version (Trager— carrier) was a proposal for a carrier-borne conversion intended for the aircraft carrier Graf Zeppelin; this modified Ju 87 B-1, intended to carry torpedoes, featured folding wings to save storage space, a deck-landing hook placed at the tail, and detachable landing gear for eventual ditching in the sea. Only a few converted Ju 87Ts were made, as the one and only German aircraft carrier was never completed.

On 18 August 1937, the RLM decided to introduce the Ju 87 Tr(C). The Ju 87 C was intended to be a dive and torpedo bomber for the Kriegsmarine. The type was ordered into prototype production and available for testing in January 1938. Testing was given just two months and was to begin in February and end in April 1938. The prototype V10 was to be a fixed wing test aircraft, while the following V11 would be modified with folding wings. The prototypes were Ju 87 B-0 airframes powered by Jumo 211 A engines. Owing to delays, the V10 was not completed until March 1938. It first flew on 17 March and was designated Ju 87 C-1. On 12 May, the V11 also flew for the first time. By 15 December 1939, 915 arrested landings on dry land had been made. It was found the arresting gear winch was too weak and had to be replaced. Tests showed the average braking distance was 20–35 metres (65-115 feet). The Ju 87 V11 was designated C-0 on 8 October 1938. It was fitted out with standard Ju 87 C-0 equipment and better wing-folding mechanisms. The "carrier Stuka" was to be built at the Weserflug Company's Bremen plant between April and July 1940.

Among the "special" equipment of the Ju 87 C was a two-seat rubber dinghy with signal ammunition and emergency ammunition. A quick fuel dump mechanism and two inflatable 750 L (200 US gal) bags in each wing and a further two 500 L (130 US gal) bags in the fuselage enabled the Ju 87 C to remain afloat for up to three days in calm seas. On 6 October 1939, with the war already underway, 120 of the planned Ju 87 Tr(C)s on order at that point were cancelled. Despite the cancellation, the tests continued using catapults. The Ju 87 C had a takeoff weight of 5,300 kg (11,700 lb) and a speed of 133 km/h (82 mph) on departure. The Ju 87 could be launched with a SC 500 kg (1,100 lb) bomb and four SC 50 kg (110 lb) bombs under the fuselage. The C-1 was to have two MG 17s mounted in the wing with a MG 15 operated by the rear gunner. On 18 May 1940, production of the C-1 was switched to the R-1.

Known prototypes

    Ju 87 V10: Registration D-IHFH (changed to Stammkennzeichen of TK+HD). W.Nr 4928. First flown 17 March 1938

    Ju 87 V11: Stammkennzeichen of TV+OV. W.Nr 4929. First flown 12 May 1938

Though the Battle of Kursk is rightly considered a tank engagement, the struggle in the skies was no less important. The Luftwaffe gave the panzer divisions excellent aerial support, but the Red Air Force was to prove the eventual master in the air.

The Luftwaffe commitment at the beginning of Operation Citadel was 1800 aircraft. This figure represented some two-thirds of the machines deployed on the entire Eastern Front. The bulk of this force was concentrated to support the southern pincer under VIII Air Corps commanded by General Otto Dessloch. A squadron commander during World War I, Dessloch had vast experience, having led various Luftwaffe units prior to the Kursk operation. Under Dessloch's leadership, VIII Air Corps controlled the flying units of 4th Air Fleet, 1st Hungarian Air Division and I FlaK (antiaircraft artillery) Corps, disposing a total of 1100 aircraft. Included amongst these flying formations were seven units of dive-bombers, the infamous Ju 87D Stuka.

The Stukas were expected to carry out their classic role, established during four years of war, as flying artillery plunging out of the skies to bomb and strafe the enemy immediately ahead of the panzer wedges. The near-vertical dive that preceded bomb release was accompanied by a howling wail, as the pilot aimed his aircraft at the target, a wail that froze the blood of the men on the ground, convincing them that they as individuals had been specially chosen for death.

Operation Citadel was the last time the Stuka would be employed in this manner, as its performance no longer matched the demands of the Eastern Front. When their dive-bomber role was rescinded, all the remaining Stukas were transferred to low-level ground-attack duties, and it was during the Kursk operation that Stuka "tank busters" were employed on a wide scale for the first time. A 37mm antitank gun was fitted under each wing, and this weight of fire in the hands of an expert such as Flight-Lieutenant Hans-Ulrich Rudel was to wreak havoc in the Soviet tank fleets. It is claimed that Rudel destroyed 12 tanks on the first day of Citadel alone.

Another first for the Luftwaffe at Kursk was the employment of Schlactsgeschwaders (ground-attack wings) utilizing Focke-Wulf Fw 190 A-4s and Henschel Hs 129 B-2/R2s in large numbers. The Henschel Hs 129 had been designed specifically as a "tank buster". In its nose were two 7.92mm machine guns and two 20mm cannons, but its real power was in its main armament, a single 30mm Mark 101 or 103 cannon housed in a gondola beneath the fuselage. When brought to bear on the thin engine housing at the real of a tank, unarmoured lorries or the timber-built Soviet bunkers, this weight of fire was usually fatal. The Fw 190s operated closely with the Hs 129s, dropping SD1 and SD2 fragmentation bombs to disrupt the Soviet infantry attack lines.

The slow speed of the ground-attack aircraft such as the Hs 129 and the Stuka necessitated close fighter cooperation to allow their crews to concentrate on the job in hand, and this was to be provided by the Messerschmitt Bf 109 G-6 and Focke-Wulf Fw 190 A-5s. The armament of the Fw 190 — four 20mm cannon in the wings and two 7.92mm machine guns in the forward fuselage — coupled with a speed of 605km/h (382mph), made it a fighter to be reckoned with. The weaponry and performance of the Bf 109 was similar. Heavier bombing operations were to be conducted by other tried and trusted aircraft, such as the Heinkel He III and the Junkers Ju 88.

The Luftwaffe supported the northern pincer with Colonel-General Ritter von Greim's 6th Air Fleet, which consisted of the 1st Air Division, the 12th FlaK Division and the 10th FlaK Brigade. The mixed bag of antitank fighter and bomber aircraft numbered 730. Amongst these were three Stuka groups. The guns of the FlaK units were highly effective weapons, particularly the 88mm. However, such was the effectiveness of the 88 against Soviet tanks that many FlaK batteries were assigned to the Wehrmacht to bolster the antitank gun formations which had less effective weapons. The consequence was that the protection available to Axis airfields was severely curtailed.

The Luftwaffe that now geared up for Operation Citadel was not the one that had dominated the Russian skies for almost two years. Commander of the Luftwaffe, Hermann Göring, had promised that no bombs would fall on the Reich. By early 1943 the emptiness of his words was proven daily by the Anglo-American bomber offensive that damaged Germany's industrial output and chiselled away at the people's morale. To counter this, Göring had withdrawn many fighter squadrons from the Eastern Front and diverted aircraft output to the West, with the consequence that the Eastern Front fought with diminished assets. To further compound this difficult situation, the Western air war was given priority in the allocation of fuel, so that the fuel allowance for the Battle of Kursk was 30 percent below its actual requirement.

However, the experience of the aircrews, the efficiency of the ground crews and the superiority of the machines were all factors that the ordinary German soldier took for granted; after all, had not the Wehrmacht enjoyed almost total air superiority over the Red Air force since the first hours of Operation Barbarossa? What the Landser in their trenches were unaware of was that the Red Air Force was now not, as it had been for so long, mere target practice for the Red Baron's proteges, but a real force to be reckoned with, and one to be taken very seriously indeed.

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On 5 July the day dawned bright and warm. On the dusty runways of Belgorod, Kharkov, Poltava and Dnepropetrovsk the Ju 88 and He 111 bombers of VIII Air Corps lined up for take-off as the first waves of the Citadel air offensive, when the wireless monitoring service reported a considerable increase in Soviet air traffic, and soon afterwards the "Freya" radar at Kharkov detected the approach of large air formations from the east. These formations contained 132 Shturmoviks and 285 fighters of the Second and Seventeenth Air Armies, detailed to destroy the German bombers on the ground when their fighter escorts were not yet airborne. But this pre-emptive strike was not to succeed. The Soviet regiments were intercepted by the Bf 109 Gs of Jagdgeschwader (hunting formations) 3 "Udet" and JG 52 scrambled from Kharkov East and Mikoyanovka, which claimed 120 air victories in the opening air battle.

In the northern sector, the Germans reported that Soviet fighter reaction to 1st Airborne Division operations began only in the late afternoon, and the Fw 190 fighters of JG 51 and JG 54 had claimed 115 Soviet aircraft by nightfall. The committal of fighters to the abortive pre-emptive strike in the early morning left the VVS unable to contest Luftwaffe air supremacy on the southern flank of the salient, and in the north, Soviet replies to the Luftwaffe attacks were tardy and ineffectual. The two fighter corps designated to give frontline cover, Yumashev's VI Fighter Corps over the Central Front and Klimov's V Fighter Corps over the Voronezh Front, were unable to cope. Without adequate air cover, the Soviet ground forces lost confidence and the Wehrmacht began to make headway. Novikov had to give his attention first to the failings of his fighters and, as a result of his investigations, Yumashev and Klimov were both replaced, VI Fighter Corps being taken over by Major-General Yerlykin and V Fighter Corps by Major-General Galunov.

Nor were the Soviet attacks on German armour initially successful. Despite new antitank bombs, their RS-82 rockets and more formidable 37mm cannon, the Il-2 Shturmoviks failed to get through and stop the panzers rolling forward. Flying in small groups, the Il-2s and Pe-2s often lacked fighter escort or they were abandoned when the very first sign of trouble appeared.

On Khudyakov's orders, the Shturmoviks began to fly in much larger formations of regimental size to make escort easier, and to enable the Il-2s to break through and suppress ground fire by sheer weight of numbers and the persistence of attack. Flying in pelang formation - staggered line abreast — the Il-2s no longer made hasty passes at low level under favourable conditions, but carried out calculated dive approaches from under 1000m (3280ft) at angles of 30-40 degrees, releasing their bombs and rockets when 200-300m (656-984ft) from their target, and making repeated passes with cannon and machine guns.

At the end of the second day, in the north of the salient, the VVS had overcome its problems and was able to contain the German fighters, if not the bombers. But from 7 July the Sixteenth Air Army got into its stride and began to wear down the Luftwaffe. By 8 July Khudyakov was able to report on the improvement in Shturmovik potency, and the Luftwaffes power to control air space over the battle areas declined. The Luftwaffe was running out of replacements to maintain its squadrons at full strength, and the RAF began to range more freely over the German lines.

Although the Germans could still mount effective ground-support missions, in specific areas if not along the entire combat zone, their superiority was being eroded at an alarming rate. By the end of effective ground-offensive operations in the northern sector, the power of the Luftwaffe was much reduced.

The picture to the south was much the same. Soviet weight of numbers and the increasingly efficient use of machines whittled away at the numerically inferior Germans, and by 11 July the Luftwaffe was only able to achieve success in narrow areas such as supporting the thrust of II SS Panzer Corps towards Prokhorovka. As Rotmistrov described the scene over the battlefield of Prokhorovka from his command post:

"At the same time, furious aerial combats developed over the battlefield. Soviet as well as German airmen tried to help their ground forces to win the battle. The bombers, ground-support aircraft and fighters seemed to be permanently suspended in the sky over Prokhorovka. One aerial combat followed another. Soon the whole sky was shrouded by the thick smoke of the burning wrecks."

If Prokhorovka was, as Konev described it, "the swansong of the German armour", then Operation Citadel would mark the coming of age of the Red Air Force. For the first time since the outbreak of war, the VVS had met the Luftwaffe on almost equal terms, and although there was a long way to go before they reached the final victory, the Soviet air fleets had clipped the wings of Hitler's Luftwaffe and had gained control of their own skies once more.

Ju-188 of Luftfotte 5 in Norway 1943

Appearing in the wake of the superlative Ju 88, the Ju 188 proved itself an even better aircraft. It excelled as a bomber, torpedo plane, and reconnaissance platform but came too late and in too few numbers to have an impact.

In 1939 the German Air Ministry announced specifications for a new high-speed bomber to replace the Do 17s and He 111s then in service. Junkers proposed a radical new design, the Ju 288, which was plagued with technical obstacles from the onset and never materialized. Meanwhile, the company also worked on the Ju 188 as a private venture in a logical progression from the already successful Ju 88. The new craft bore marked resemblance to its forebear, but it differed in having a new bulbous canopy section and longer, tapering wings. It also sported a power turret and squared-off tail surfaces. The first Ju 188 was test-flown in 1940 with excellent results, although its initial payload was the same as the earlier craft’s. Nonetheless, production commenced in 1942, and by war’s end 1,076 machines had been delivered.

The Ju 188E was the first production variant and was employed as a radar-equipped torpedo-bomber. It functioned well and was possibly the best of its type during the war. They were followed by the Ju 188F, a high-altitude long-range reconnaissance version that performed useful work in Russia. By 1943 the bugs had been shaken out of the new Jumo 213A engines, and they were fitted to the dedicated bomber variant, the Ju 188A. These proved even faster and more versatile than the already legendary Ju 88s and were very popular with crews. Many were employed as pathfinders during the January 1944 “Little Blitz” against London. The final version, the Ju 188T, was a stripped-down reconnaissance machine that could reach 435 miles per hour at very high altitude. The Ju 188s were excellent machines but appeared too late and in too small numbers to improve Germany’s fortunes.

High-altitude versions

In 1943, it was planned to upgrade the entire lineup with even more wing area and a pressurized cockpit for high-altitude work. A single basic airframe would be offered in three versions, the Ju 188J heavy fighter, Ju 188K bomber, and the Ju 188L reconnaissance version. All three did away with the under-slung gunner's compartment, leading to a cleaner nose profile, and the bomber and recce versions mounted their loads in a long pannier under the middle of the plane instead of the deeper fuselage of the G and H models.

Simpler versions of these with no defensive armament and even longer wings became the Ju 188S fighter and Ju 188T intruder. With Jumo 213E-1 engines 2,050 PS (1,510 kW, 2,020 hp) at take-off and 1,690 PS (1,240 kW, 1,670 hp) at 9,500 m (31,400 ft), the Ju 188T could reach 700 km/h (440 mph). Operating at this altitude, the Ju 188S could carry only 800 kg (1,760 lb) of bombs.

Before any of these could start production, the entire lineup was renamed the Ju 388, the vastly improved performance warranting this change in name.

Ju 188 A & E

The Ju 188 was designed to be fitted with either the 1,750 PS (1,290 kW, 1,730 hp) Jumo 213A or 1,700 PS (1,250 kW, 1,680 hp) BMW 801 G-2 engines without any changes to the airframe. It was originally intended that both would be known as A models, but the naming was later changed: the Ju 188A model powered by the 213, and the Ju 188E by the 801.

The first three production Ju 188 E-1 machines were delivered with the BMW engines in February 1943, another seven in March, and eight in April. A conversion testing unit was formed up in May, and after testing were attached to an operational unit, with the first mission, an attack by three Ju 188E-1s on a factory in Lincoln, Lincolnshire taking place on 18 August 1943. By the end of the year, 283 Ju 188s had been delivered (including Ju 188Fs), and two new factories were added to the production effort. Most operational machines differed from the prototypes only in having a 20 mm MG 151/20 cannon in the nose and dorsal turrets in place of the 13 mm (.51 in) MG 131. The MG 131 I was intended to be used in the Ju 188 E-1 or the G-2. But the heavy armament in the A and E series was the MG 151/20.[5] The Ju 188 E-2 was built as a torpedo-bomber, but was identical to the Ju 188 A-3.

Although the A and E models were to have been delivered at the same time, the Jumo engine was still having difficulties getting into production. Nevertheless, the first Jumo powered Ju 188 A-1 versions were shipped only shortly after the BMW versions, albeit at a much slower rate. By the time delivery rates were finally picking up in late 1943, the Jumo was available in a new MW 50 methanol-water injection "boosted" version that delivered 1,648 kW (2,241 hp) for takeoff. With this engine, the planes were known as the Ju 188 A-2, and started deliveries in early 1944.

A modified version mounting a small FuG 200 Hohentwiel sea-search radar set under the nose and shackles for a torpedo for naval strike missions was delivered as the Ju 188 E-2, and with the Jumo as the Ju 188 A-3. The only other difference was the removal of the outer pair of wing bomb shackles.

For all its good points, the Ju 188 was only a small improvement over the Ju 88 it was supposed to replace. The bombload and bomb bay was no larger than the earlier plane, so although it could handle a larger load by mounting externally, doing so hurt performance. Even then the performance was rather poor considering all the effort - only 523 km/h (325 mph) or less. The dorsal turret had only one gun in it, yet the type retained the single-gun flexible position only a few centimeters away from it. In the meantime, the various projects to finally provide the plane with real tail armament were all abandoned.

Delivery problems of the Jumo were never entirely sorted out, and the only model to be built in large numbers were the E series with the BMW 801. Even then so few were available that they were generally given out to Ju 88 units, who flew them on "special" missions where the longer range or better performance would be helpful.

Some 500 Ju 188A and E variants were built up until the summer of 1944, when production ceased.

Specifications (Ju 188E)

General characteristics

    Crew: 5

    Length: 15 m (49 ft 1 in)

    Wingspan: 22 m (72 ft 2 in)

    Height: 4.4 m (14 ft 7 in)

    Wing area: 56 m² (603 ft²)

    Empty weight: 9,900 kg (21,825 lb)

    Loaded weight: 14,500 kg (31,967 lb)

    Powerplant: 2 × 1 BMW 801 G-2, 1,700 PS (1,250 kW) each

Performance

    Maximum speed: 499 km/h (310 mph)

    Range: 2,190 km (1,360 mi combat)

    Service ceiling: 9,500 m (31,170 ft)

    Wing loading: 258.9 kg/m² (53.0 lb/ft²)

    Power/mass: 0.175 kW/kg (0.106 hp/lb)

Armament

    Guns: 1 × 20 mm MG 151/20 cannon

    3 × 13 mm (.51 in) MG 131 machine gun

    Bombs: 3,000 kg (6,612 lb)

Ju 188 C

It was planned all along to skip over a "B model" to avoid confusion with the original Ju 88 B, but in the original planning the A and E models would both be called A's. The Ju 188 C would thus be the next model in line.

The C series was built to the extent of a single example, by modifying one of the few A-1 machines. To this, they added the new power-operated FA 15 turret in the tail. The turret mounted two 13 mm (.51 in) MG 131s, aimed with a double-periscope (top and bottom) system mounted in the cockpit.

This modification would have greatly improved defensive firepower, always lacking on German designs, but reliability was so poor it was decided to abandon the system.

Ju 188 D & F

In early 1944, it was decided to focus on reconnaissance versions of the A and E models. The airframe was modified with the removal of the bomb aimer and the forward gun, and additional fuel cells were added to extend the range to 3,400 km (2,110 mi). The Ju 188 D-1 was otherwise similar to the A-1, and the Ju 188 D-2 fitted nose radar for naval reconnaissance. Similar conversions of the E models were the Ju 188 F-1 and Ju 188 F-2.

Ju 188 G & H

One problem with the Ju 88 that carried into the 188 was the lack of internal room for bomb storage. Both carried the majority of their bombload on the outside of the plane on racks under the wing, where it greatly affected performance. This was to have been addressed in the G and H models, which extended the fuselage downward for more room with the addition of a wooden pannier.

This modification also left enough room at the tail to fit a manned turret in place of the C model's remote-control one. However this system proved to be just as limited as the remote-control FA 15, being so small that only gunners could fit into it, and had basically no ability to escape in an emergency. The RLM rejected the manned design and planned on mounting the FA 15 even if it were unreliable. Oddly, the designs still had the nose area extended under the plane for a rear gunner, when this would no longer be needed and its removal would have greatly cleaned up the lines of the plane.

With the Jumo 213s now being sent to fighter production, the Ju 188 G-2 was to use the BMW 801 only, with the reconnaissance conversion known as the Ju 188 H-2. Neither entered production before the war ended.

Ju 188 R

In the summer of 1944, three E models were modified as night fighters with the addition of radar and either four 20 mm MG 151/20s or two 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 103 cannons in the nose. However, the added visibility of the 188 was not useful in the night role, and because the added drag of the radar washed out any speed difference, the Ju 188 R-0 was not ordered.